Hephaestus, the Master Craftsman free essay sample

Hephaestus, the Greek god of fire, is most revered for his master craftsmanship. In works of art he is usually depicted as a middle-aged smith working in his forge, often making a thunderbolt for Zeus. Born of Hera alone, he was cast down as a baby from Olympus by his mother for his defective ugliness and fell for a whole day before he hit the ground. Nine years after he was thrown from the heavens, he returned to Olympus and became one of the twelve Olympian Gods. With Zeus’s favor, he was able to marry Aphrodite, the goddess of love, who sadly never returned the love he gave to her. Hephaestus was loved by the mortals for his kindness and he had an important role in Athens alongside Athena. Nearly every weapon, piece of armor, or building of any importance was crafted by Hephaestus. Hephaestus, rejected by his mother for his ugliness, helped countless mortals and gods, married Aphrodite, and rose to Olympus to become the master craftsman honored by all. We will write a custom essay sample on Hephaestus, the Master Craftsman or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Hephaestus is the god of fire but only in its positive and useful aspect. This also includes everything that is accomplished by fire. Therefore, any fire that destroys or damages is not attributed to him (Berens 73). He, being a smith, is the protector of smiths, both goldsmiths and blacksmiths and jewelers. Also as a master builder he is the god of builders, masons, and carpenters (Graves 15). He is also considered to be the god of volcanoes because this is where it was believed his forges were located. Inside his forges, he uses Cyclopes as his helpers because they have a natural talent for forging (Bolton 178). Not only is Hephaestus a smith, he is also an architect, craftsman, and an artist (Bulfinch 13). In fact, he is known as the master craftsman (Hansen 185). He makes nearly everything that the gods want from their weapons and armor, to their homes, palaces and chariots (Hamilton 36). Hephaestus is an ugly god. He is often illustrated with grotesque facial features and malformed legs but with massive upper body strength. Usually he is shown wielding a hammer and working on a weapon or object of some kind (Berens 76). In other depictions of art, items often associated with work, such as an axe, a mule, and a pilos, otherwise known as a workman’s hat, are used to represent him (Hansen 186). Hesphaestus is also represented by the quail. This bird’s strange dance in the springtime is seen as similar to how Hephaestus hobbles when he walks (Graves 15). Several stories exist on how Hephaestus was born. While all stories agree that he was born to Hera, the goddess of marriage, they differ on when he was born and whether he had a father at all. Some say that he was born to Hera, alone, because she wanted to give birth to a child by herself after Zeus solely gave birth to Athena (Martin 88). However, this is contradicted by the story that it was Hephaestus that helped Zeus give birth to Athena by splitting Zeus’s head open to allow Athena to pop out. Therefore, Hera could not have been jealous of Athena’s single parent birth since Athena hadn’t been born yet (Berens 21). This leads to the rumor where Hera had Hephaestus long before being married to Zeus (Martin 88). But the easiest explanation is that Zeus was indeed his father, and he was born before Athena (Bulfinch 15). After Hephaestus was born, Hera realized that he was ugly and crippled, and to rid herself of such an embarrassment, she threw him off Olympus (Graves 86). He plummeted into the sea, and immediately he was saved by the sea-goddess Thetis. Thetis took him to an underground cave where she and an oceanide Eurynome took turns caring for and raising the young god (Hansen 183). For nine years he remained hidden in his secret, underground home. By the end of the nine years he was already an expert craftsman. He made elaborate items of jewelry, much to the delight of his caretakers (Martin 89). He also made useful objects like clasps, pins, and cups (Hansen 184). While Hephaestus was living with Thetis in the underwater cavern, she told him stories of his birth mother, Hera. After hearing these stories, Hephaestus desperately wanted revenge on his mother for throwing him off Olympus. He began to work non-stop in his forge, leaving only for ambrosia and nectar. Some time later he emerged with a shining black and gold throne, his first masterpiece. Displayed across the entire throne were different scenes depicting the stories of the gods. He requested that Thetis take the throne to Hera up on Mount Olympus as a gift. When the throne was placed in front of Hera, she admired it for a long time. After she sat down, she realized that she could not move. Invisible bands of force held her in place. She yelled frantically, trying to escape but with no success. The other Olympians quickly came to her aid but none of them could release her either. They soon came to the conclusion that a god had made the throne, but they did not know who could have made it (Martin 89). Thetis, who happened to still be there, explained to the gods who made the throne. Ares immediately volunteered to fetch Hephaestus, and set off at once for the underwater cave. When Ares arrived, however, Hephaestus fought him off using flaming brands. Ares returned to Olympus empty handed and Hera began to fear that she would spend eternity stuck in a chair. Luckily for Hera, Dionysus decided he would give it a try. He gathered an excessive amount of wine and traveled to the cave. He made no sign that he was trying to take Hephaestus to Olympus. Instead he gave Hephaestus the alcohol and soon had him so drunk that Hephaestus couldn’t even walk. Dionysus then called upon his satyrs and donkey to escort Hephaestus back to Olympus in a grand parade of flute-playing and cymbal-smashing satyrs. Once they arrived at Olympus, Dionysus declared, on behalf of the drunken Hephaestus, that Hera could go only if Hephaestus was allowed to stay on Mount Olympus. Every god favored the agreement so Hephaestus unlocked the throne, setting Hera free. From then on, Hephaestus the smith was one of the twelve Olympians (Martin 90). Many people wonder how Olympus’s ugliest god became the husband to the most beautiful goddess. There are several different explanations on how this happened. One story says that when Hephaestus first saw Aphrodite, he immediately fell in love with her and went straight to Zeus and Hera for permission to marry her. Since they both agreed, they became husband and wife (Bolton 178). Another story states that Zeus gave Aphrodite to Hephaestus in thanks for him forging his lightning bolts (Bulfinch 4). A different story explains that Zeus married them to keep Aphrodite out of trouble. He thought she needed a hardworking and disciplined husband, so he chose Hephaestus (Graves 16). Lastly, one theory says that Zeus set it up as revenge for when Aphrodite refused him as a lover (Bolton 178). No matter how they got married, one thing is always agreed upon. Hephaestus loved Aphrodite, but Aphrodite never returned that love (Hansen 184). Aphrodite never loved Hephaestus because she thought it was shameful to have a crippled and hideous husband (Graves 17). So instead of being a loyal and faithful wife, Aphrodite had many affairs with gods as well as mortals. The most prominent affair was with Hephaestus’s brother, Ares, the god of war. When Hephaestus found out about her affair with Ares, he became especially angry (Hansen 184). Helios came to Hephaestus and told him of the affair between Aphrodite and Ares. Hephaestus’s immediate reaction was of rage and revenge (Hansen 184). He went to his smithy and crafted a pair of invisible and indestructible chains. He took the chains and laid them over top of his bed, checking to see if it was concealed. Hephaestus told Aphrodite that he would be leaving on vacation to Lemnos and pretended to depart. As soon as Aphrodite thought he was gone, she summoned Ares to come. They laid down in Hephaestus’s own bed and instantly became trapped (Hansen 185). Hephaestus then returned to his house and summoned all of the gods to come with him. There, he let them view the humiliated and trapped lovers in bed (Bolton 180). Hephaestus explained to the gods how Aphrodite hated him for being crippled and loved Ares for being attractive. All the male gods commented on the scene and viewed it without disgust. Several of the goddesses, however, did not enjoy themselves as much as the male gods did (Hansen 185). Everyone laughed though, and made fun of Ares and Aphrodite, but some mocked Hephaestus as well (Bolton 180). Finally, with some pleading from Poseidon, Hephaestus let the embarrassed lovers go (Hansen 185). Hephaestus may have had some problems with his wife, but he was very popular among the mortals. He taught them smithing and the art of metalworking (Berens 74). Aside from that, he was known for being very helpful. Orion once came to Hephaestus’s forge on Lemnos after being blinded. Hephaestus took pity on him and sent a guide to take him to Apollo. Because of his helpfulness, all the mortals honored him, and many of them worshiped him (Berens 73). He has temples on the volcanic Island of Lemnos and Mt. Maschylus (Graves 88). He also has a temple on Mount Etna and in Athens. To enter the temple on Mt. Etna, the mortals must pass fearsome hounds, who serve as guards. These hounds have the ability to smell if people are good or evil. With these special guards, only the clean and righteous souls can enter (Berens 76). His temple in Athens stands alongside the temple of Athena. In Athens he serves alongside Athena as the patron of handicrafts, specifically the guardian of the smiths (Hamilton 37). Hephaestus, being the master craftsman, made a great deal of objects for the good of mankind. Many times he helped heroes on their quests, such as Hercules, Aeneas, and Achilles. For Hercules, Hephaestus crafted several gifts. First, he constructed an enormous pair of clappers that were somewhat like cymbals. Hercules used these to scare the Stymphalide birds (Berens 286). He made a golden breastplate on Hercules’ behalf (Hansen 185). Lastly, he sent Hercules a golden quiver as a gift for when he became famous among the gods (Berens 282). For Aeneas, he crafted an impressive set of armor at the request of his goddess-mother (Bulfinch 155). Aeneas used the armor to defeat Turnus in battle. Finally, to the hero Achilles, he gave a set of impenetrable armor after Thetis, Achilles’ mother, asked him to help her son. Achilles had lost his previous armor and needed a replacement to protect him in his search for Hector. When Hephaestus was visited by Thetis and heard her request, he set all other work aside to complete it (Bulfinch 121). Besides helping mortals, Hephaestus had other responsibilities. As the master craftsman, he solely designed and built the numerous palaces on Mount Olympus. These included the wondrous palace of Zeus and Hera at the peak of Olympus to the palaces of every other Olympian god to even the majestic thrones that sat in each (Berens 20). Again, being the master craftsman, he built many other things. For mighty Zeus, he made the shield, Aegis and constantly replenishes his supply of thunderbolts (Bulfinch 2). To Artemis he gave armor and arrows to help her on her hunts (Bolton 178). Some of his greatest works were built for Apollo, the god of the sun. These included the magnificent palace of the sun in the east, as well as Apollo’s own Sun chariot (Bulfinch 23). Hephaestus lived through his harsh and misfortunate creation to become a well respected god, loved for his kindness and honored by the humans and gods that he assisted in numerous ways. Ordinary man chose the common quail, whose springtime dance is like his limping walk, to represent him. When he was born, his ugliness caused Hera to cast him off Olympus to rid herself of the embarrassment. Thetis took him in, raised him, and he later returned to Olympus in revenge to Hera. Aphrodite became his wife although her loyalty was to Ares, Hephaestus’s brother, and not to her husband. Hephaestus was honored by having temples in Athens and on Mt. Etna. The most marvelous works known to gods or mortals were created by Hephaestus. Even though Hephaestus is the ugliest god on Olympus, he became one of the most popular in heaven as well as on earth by happily aiding humans and kindly assisting his fellow gods alike.

A Timeline of the Russian Revolution From 1914 to 1916

A Timeline of the Russian Revolution From 1914 to 1916 In 1914, the First World War erupted across Europe. At one point, in the early days of this process, the Russian Tsar was faced with a decision: mobilize the army and make war almost inevitable, or stand down and lose massive face. He was told by some advisors that to turn away and not fight would undermine and destroy his throne, and by others that to fight would destroy him as the Russian army failed. He seemed to have few correct choices, and he went into war. Both advisors might have been right. His empire would last until 1917 as a result. 1914 June - July: General Strikes in St. Petersburg. July 19th: Germany declares war on Russia, causing a brief sense of patriotic union amongst the Russian nation and a downturn in striking. July 30th: The All Russian Zemstvo Union for the Relief of Sick and Wounded Soldiers is created with Lvov as president. August - November: Russia suffers heavy defeats and a large shortage of supplies, including food and munitions. August 18th: St. Petersburg is renamed Petrograd as Germanic names are changed to sound more Russia, and hence more patriotic. November 5th: Bolshevik members of the Duma are arrested; they are later tried and exiled to Siberia. 1915 February 19: Great Britain and France accept Russias claims to Istanbul and other Turkish lands. June 5th: Strikers shot at in Kostrom; casualties. July 9th: The Great Retreat begins, as Russian forces pull back into Russia. August 9th: The Dumas bourgeois parties form the Progressive bloc to push for better government and reform; includes the Kadets, Octobrist groups and Nationalists. Auguest 10th: Strikers shot at in Ivnovo-Voznesà ©nsk; casualties. August 17-19th: Strikers in Petrograd protest at the deaths in Ivnovo-Voznesà ©nsk. August 23rd: Reacting to war failures and a hostile Duma, the Tsar takes over as Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces, prorogues the Duma and moves to military headquarters at Mogilev. Central government begins to seize up. By associating the army, and its failures, with him personally, and by moving away from the centre of government, he dooms himself. He absolutely has to win, but doesnt. 1917 January - December: Despite successes in the Brusilov offensive, the Russian war effort is still characterised by shortages, poor command, death and desertion. Away from the front, the conflict causes starvation, inflation and a torrent of refugees. Both soldiers and civilians blame the incompetence of the Tsar and his government. February 6: Duma reconvened. February 29th: After a month of strikes at the Putilov Factory, the government conscripts the workers and takes charge of production. Protest strikes follow. June 20: Duma prorogued. October: Troops from 181st Regiment help striking Russkii Renault workers fight against the Police. November 1st: Miliukov gives his Is this stupidity or treason? speech in reconvened Duma. December 17/18th: Rasputin is killed by Prince Yusupov; he has been causing chaos in the government and blackened the name of the royal family. December 30th: The Tsar is warned that his army wont support him against a revolution.

The Fashion Industry and the New Consumer Essay

The Fashion Industry and the New Consumer - Essay Example The paper "The Fashion Industry and the New Consumer" examines marketing concepts for the one of the United Kingdom top fashion brands Marks and Spencer. When we discuss marketing oriented organisations, it is agreeable that Marks and Spencer is one of the organisations in the United Kingdom that practices it. As a matter of fact, the fashion retailer can be described with five major characteristics of marketing oriented organisations; First of all it focuses on extensive and wide spread use of marketing research. ,T the organisation also emphasizes on the benefits of buying their products, that which are based on the attributes of the same product, it keeps on expanding its product lines in all categories and geographical regions. Tthe company makes use of various innovation schemes in order to enhance the value of the product to its target customers and lastly., Tthe company focuses its business inon adding value to customers like free delivery, warranty and credit availability. Ac cording to Armstrong, marketing and selling concepts usually focus on the selling of the products and moving out of firm’s products. This is usually looked at in a bigger perspective. Marketing concepts are meant to make a retailer product, meet the needs of its customers and also be able to make profits for the organisation. ThisIt means that a retailer will put his target on selling his goods and service, however, in order to succeed it is necessary to persuade its customers to embrace the products.

Changing Hand Hygiene Behavior at the Point of Care to prevent the Dissertation

Changing Hand Hygiene Behavior at the Point of Care to prevent the spread of clostridium difficile utilizing CDC's WHO model f - Dissertation Example Nosocomial infections  are preventable through proper hand hygiene.   C. PICO question: For RN’s, LPN/LVN and NA  (nursing assistants) working on patient care  areas, will changing hand hygiene at the point  of care prevent the spread of C.difficile D. P=Population-RN’s, LPN/LVN and NA’s providing  primary patient care. E. Intervention: Scheduled educational classes  introducing CDC’s â€Å"WHO model for Hand Hygiene.   F. Comparison- Comparison: RN; LPN and NA  knowledge pre and post training. â€Å"A  comparison of pre and post-tests will be  conducted to determine the participant’s  understanding of the WHO model and the impact  of hand washing technique on the incidence of  Clostridium difficile.   G. O =Outcome-Nursing staff will demonstrate and  utilize CDC’s:†WHO Model for Hand Hygiene†Ã‚  thereby preventing the spread of Nosocomial  infections such as Clostridium difficile. III. Methods-    A. Sampling strategies (examples-search process,  databases accessed, year restrictions, types of  studies, key terms used in the search).   B. Data evaluation (criteria you considered when  deciding to utilize a piece of literature).   IV. Findings-   A. ... standards, lack of  published empirical studies on the topic,  rationale for using non-empirical studies,  lack of studies in nursing but did locate  studies in another discipline)   V. Discussion   A. What has been concluded from the findings   B. Advantages and disadvantages of findings   C. How the findings could be utilized in nursing  practice   VI. Conclusion- Hand washing (soap washing and water), contact precaution and meticulous environmental cleaning with an EPA-registered disinfectant are effective in preventing the spread of the organism. Abstract Background The World Alliance for Patient Safety launched by The WHO in 2004 advocates a â€Å"clean care is safer care† program, in which health care leaders sign a pledge to take specific steps to reduce hospital associated infections in their facilities. Hand hygiene is the first focus in this worldwide initiative. Recognizing a worldwide need to improve hand hygiene in healthcare facilities, the WH O produced Advance Draft, launched its â€Å"Guidelines on Hand Hygiene in Health Care† along with the â€Å"Implementation Toolkit† that have been available since 5 May 2009 on the occasion of the launch of the â€Å"Save Lives: Clean Your Hands† initiative. The WHO regards hand hygiene as an essential tool for the prevention of nosocomial infection, but compliance in clinical practice is often low. Methods Relevant scientific literature and international evidence-based recommendations (Meta Analysis Sources) were studied. Results Hand washing (soap washing and water), Hygienic hand disinfection, contact precaution and meticulous environmental cleaning with an EPA-registered disinfectant are effective in preventing the spread of the organism. Compliance can be improved by training, and by placing hand-rub dispensers at

Curriculum Design Essay Example for Free

Curriculum Design Essay Chapter 7 ASCD Yearbook Fundamental Curriculum Decisions, 1984 People cannot intelligently discuss and communicate with others about curriculum without first making very clear what their interpretation of a curriculum is. In this chapter, we will be thinking of a curriculum as a written plan for the educational program of a school or schools. Curriculum design them will consist of those considerations haying to do with the contents, the form, and the arrangement of the various elements of a curriculum. We distinguish between curriculum planning and instructional planning with curriculum planning being the antecedent task. Curriculum planners are forced to make design decisions almost from the outset of their work. The design decisions revolve around three important considerations: (1) the range of school levels and schools to be covered by the curriculum, (2) the number of elements to be included in the curriculum, and (3) the nature and scope of each of those elements. Each of these requires additional explanations. Decisions about the range of school levels and schools to be covered by the curriculum normally are mot very complicated, and the range usually coincides with the sphere of authority of the board of education. Districts may elect to plan a curriculum from kindergarten through grade 12; they may elect to plan one curriculum for the elementary schools and one for the secondary schools; or they may elect to direct each school unit to plan its own curriculum. Planning groups will have to decide about the number of elements to be included in the curriculum. Among the options for inclusion are: (1) a statement of goals or purposes, (2) a statement of document intent and use, (3) an evaluation scheme, and (4) a body of culture content selected and organized with the expectancy that if the culture content is judiciously implemented in classrooms through the instructional program, the goals or purposes for the schools will be achieved. To this list, some would add suggested pupil activities, instructional materials, and so forth, but these matters belong more rightfully in the domain of instructional planning and we will not consider them here. A few comments about each of these four elements will be helpful to the reader in understanding their import for curriculum decisions. Most curriculum writers would agree that it is desirable to include a statement of goals or purposes to be achieved by schools through the implementation of the planned curriculum. They may disagree as to what the goals ought to be, or they may disagree about the degree of specificity of the statements to be included. The most famous statement of goals or purposes for schools became known as the Seven Cardinal Principles of Education as formulated by the Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Schools in 1918. They were health, command of the fundamental processes, worthy home membership, vocation, civic education, worthy use of leisure, and ethical character. There is less consistency among curriculum writers in terms of their insistence upon including a statement of document intent and use in a curriculum, and, in practice many curricula do not contain such statements. Curricula have, in the past, contained statements intended to reveal the philosophy or point of view of the planners but this is not what we mean by a statement of document intent and use. A statement of document intent and use should be forthright and direct about such matters as: (1) how teachers are expected to use the curriculum as a point of departure fur developing their teaching strategies, (2) the fact that the curriculum is the official educational policy of the board of education, (3) the degree of universality in expectancy with regard to the discretion of teachers in implementing the curriculum, and (4) the degree to which teachers are to be held accountable for the implementation of the curriculum. These are illustrative of the kind of statement that may be formulated, but each planning group will have to decide on the number and character of such statements. With the amount of emphasis put upon curriculum evaluation in recent years, some mandate with respect to the curriculum evaluation is a very reasonable option for inclusion in a curriculum. The most common method of pupil evaluation used in the past has been the standardized (norm referenced) achievement test. In most cases, there were no deliberate attempts to relate published curricula to the test batteries. Therefore, any leap in assumption about the directness of the relationship between curriculum content and whatever was measured by the tests was likely to be untenable. All the more reason for formalizing an evaluation scheme by including it in the curriculum. In one form or another, a curriculum must include a body of culture content that has been deemed by the planners and directing authorities to be important for schools to use in fulfilling their roles as transmitters of culture to the oncoming generations of young people. The basic curriculum question is, and always has been, that of what shall be taught in schools, and a major function of a curriculum is to translate the answer to that question into such forms that schools can fulfill their commitment and demonstrate that they leave done so. Most of the remainder of this chapter is devoted to discussion of this element of a curriculum; so we will leave it at this point. But it should be made clear that from these options as potential elements of a curriculum, there emerge two dimensions of curriculum design. One is the choice of and the arrangement of the elements to be included in the curriculum. The other is the form and arrangement of the contents of each of the elements internally. The design problem is greatest in the case of the form and arrangement of the culture content and it is the one most frequently discussed under the heading of curriculum design by curriculum writers past and present. . Culture Content-Knowledge-Curriculum Content A curriculum is an expression of the choice of content selected from our total culture content and, as such, it is an expression of the role of the school in the society for which the school has been established to serve. A word needs to be said here about the meaning associated with the expression culture content. Ralph Linton provided us with a classical and very useful definition of culture. He stated: A culture is the configuration of learned behavior and results of behavior whose component elements are shared and transmitted by the members of a particular society (1945, p. 32). The term society is ordinarily used to refer to a group of individuals who live together with common norms and shared frames of reference. Societies tend to generate their own culture and to transmit that culture to oncoming generations within that society. So long as societies and their cultures remained in a primitive state, their cultures were simple and could be transmitted to oncoming generations by direct contact between the young and the older members of the society. But as societies became more complex and the scope of their culture content increased so that the transmission of the culture content to the young could no longer be accomplished by direct contact in daily living, societies were forced to create institutions to take on the responsibility for all or part of the cultural transmission task. The school is one of those institutions. The church is another. Both of these institutions have unique roles to play in society, and they tend to transmit different culture conten t to the young. Parochial schools tend to do both. As Smith indicated in Chapter 3 of this Yearbook (not in this reading – JG), the culture content selected to be included in the curriculum of the school may be thought of as equivalent to the knowledge to which school students are to be exposed. In any case, it is critically important to be aware that not all culture content, or knowledge, accumulated by society comes under the purview of the school; curriculum planning is a process of selecting and organizing culture content for transmission to student by the school. The process is very complex, involving input from many sources, but the organized end-result of the process is the design of the curriculum. The most sophisticated mode of organization of culture content for purposes of teaching is reflected by the various disciplines such as history, chemistry, or mathematics. In addition to the established and recognized disciplines, school subjects have been created out of conventional wisdom m the applications of selected portions of the disciplines to applied areas of our culture such as vocational subjects, social studies, or reading and handwriting. In general, the separate subject organization of culture content has predominated in curriculum design. Another way of speaking about curriculum content is to refer to cognitive content, skill content, and value or attitudinal content. As Smith discussed more fully in Chapter 3, all three types of content represent knowledge in some from either in the form of direct knowledge or a knowledge base. The three forms have been used as a classification schema or a taxonomy for curriculum content formulation. Historic Curriculum Design Conflicts One must realize that tire basic curriculum question is, and always has been, one of what shall be taught in the schools. An immediate corollary to that question has been that of how shall what has been chosen to be taught in the school be organized so as to best facilitate the subsequent decisions about teaching and learning. Those two questions are the primary curriculum questions, and the organized decisions made in response to them culminate in a curriculum design. A few reflections about our curriculum past will illustrate settle of the conflicts in curriculum design that have taken place. In her study, Sequel observed that curriculum as we use the term today was not a subject of professional discussion until after 1890 (1966, p. 1). Rugg contended that decisions about curriculum content prior to the 20th century were decided primarily by textbook writers and textbook publishers (1926, Pp. Ill-11). It was not until 1918 that Bobbitt wrote the first definitive work on curriculum and since that time curriculum writers have directed their attention to the substance and organization of curriculum content (curriculum design) and to the processes of curriculum planning, implementing, and evaluating. By the early 1900, the stage had been set for the separate subjects organization of the culture content to be used in schools. In our very early elementary or primary schools, for example, pupils were taught to read, to write, and to compute; the subjects were called reading, writing, and arithmetic. Much later such subjects as geography, history, and civics were added to the curriculum. In our early secondary schools, pupils were taught a selection of subjects (disciplines) that were directly associated with the disciplines taught at the college or university. Even though the separate subjects organization of culture content was used before curriculum became an area of professional study, it is still with us. True, subjects have ben added and others altered, but it remains the dominant approach to curriculum design. The separate subjects mode of curriculum design has been significantly challenged only once in our history. That challenge came with the advent of the Progressive Education movement. A principal belief of the Progressive Education movement was its dramatic emphasis on the learner in school settings. A substantial portion of the Progressive emphasis on the learner was stimulated by John Deweys (1916) call for more active and less passive learning in schools. This focus on the learner when applied to the organization of curriculum content led to endeavors remove away from the separate subjects organization of tire curriculum content. The movemen away from the separate subjects organization (sometimes called subject-centered) was toward the integration, or fusion, of subjects under the assumption that such integration would not only facilitate learning on the part of pupils but would additionally make the knowledge, skills, and attitudes more easily available to the pupils in post-school life (the transfer problem). The basic process involved here was the fusion of the contents of two or more of the separate subjects into another organization in which the individual subjects lost their separate identities. As one might expect, names were associated with the various integration or fusion attempts. Figure 1 adapted from Hopkins (1941, p. 18) illustrates the variety of names associated with curricula resulting from integrative or fusion processes. Hopkins here polarized the subject curriculum and the experience curriculum. The broad fields curriculum was placed in the center so as to show that it had a reasonable num ber of the characteristics of the two extremes. Others as indicated on either side depending on emphasis. Space in this volume will not permit extensive description of curricula developed as part of the efforts to move away from separate subjects organization. The best we can do here is to identify some of them and cite sources for further investigation on the part of the reader. For example, in their hook The Child-Centered School, Rugg and Shumaker (1928) presented brief descriptions of the curricula of the Lincoln School, The Frances Parker School, and others of that time. In most cases, the curricula were built around child-centered units of work, but attention was focused as needed on such basic subjects as reading, mathematics, history, geography, and so forth. One of the most extreme departures from separate subjects organization was proposed by Stratemeyer and others (1957). The authors proposed the persistent life situations concept as a basis for dealing with the curriculum building issues of scope, sequence, continuity, balance, and depth. At the junior and senior high school levels, special mention should be made of the core curriculum. The core curriculum idea was to get away from nothing but the discipline-centered curriculum. Most core programs were organized around larger and more flexible blocks of time, and the content was generally centered on personal and social problems and problems of living. In many respects the core curriculum idea was an attempt to solve the general education problem in our upper schools. It is important to note that in practice in schools, curriculum design failed to get very far away from the subject- or discipline-centered design. The most lasting effect of the movement was the broad fields idea as represented by social studies, language arts, and general science, and they have persisted mostly in curricula for elementary and junior high schools. Contemporary Arguments About Curriculum Design Probably the most persistent movement in curriculum design in recent years has been the proposed use of specific behavioral objectives as a basis for curriculum organization. Curriculum writers have long proposed that curricula ought to contain statements of goals or objectives, but not as the only content of a curriculum. Some contemporary writers have proposed that curricula should be thought of in terms of the anticipated consequences of instruction, or intended learning outcomes. (For example, see Popham and Baker, 1970; Johnson, 1977). The culture content in such cases would either be implied in the objectives or be considered as an instructional decision. A distinct advantage of this type of curriculum design is that supervision of the implementation and of the evaluation of the curriculum is simplified and facilitated. Such proposals are in direct contrast to a proposal that a curriculum should he composed in four parts: (1) a statement of goals, (2) an outline of the culture content that has the potential for reaching the goals, (3) a statement of the intended use of the curriculum, and (4) a schema for the evaluation of the curriculum (Beauchamp, 1981, p. 136). They are in even greater contrast to those who would include instructional considerations such as suggested activities for learners and instructional materials to be used. Curriculum planners should be warned that the inclusion of all of these things produces fat and unmanageable curricula. With respect to the culture content of curricula, two organizational concepts persist both in the literature and in the practice of writing curricula. The first is the tendency to continue with the basic framework of the subjects, or disciplines, that are to be taught. The second is to break the subject areas down into three identifiable components: (1) cognitive, (2) inquiry and skill, and (3) affective (value, moral, attitudinal). Curriculum planners will probably wish to begin their thinking about design with the familiar, which will unquestionably be the conventional school subjects. They will consist of mathematics, social sciences (including social studies as a subject), the natural sciences, fine and applied arts, health and physical education, communications, and other languages. At the secondary school level, planners will add to these whatever vocational and technical subjects they may wish to offer. Some planners will wish to add an area that may be termed social problems, molar problems, or problems of living that may call for applications of elements learned in various conventional subjects. Curriculum planning is an educative process. For this reason classroom teachers should be involved in the undertaking. A very important reason for their involvement is that the process of curriculum planning presents an opportunity for them to engage in analysis of the culture content so that they may be more effective in their classrooms at the level of instruction. The analytic process of breaking down the culture content into cognitive, affective, and inquiry and skill components is one way that teachers may become mote knowledgeable about what they do. Also in this process of analyzing the culture content, the content is more specifically related to goals and at the same time it fosters better curriculum implementation. For these reasons, teachers participation in curriculum deliberations has been proposed frequently as a needed dimension of continuous teacher education. In Chapter 3, Smith raised the very important question of the utility of the culture content selected to be part of the curriculum content, and he posed several ways in which the utility of knowledge can be emphasized. In a more specific vein, Broody, Smith, and Burnett (1964) suggested on, potential uses of learnings acquired in school to he taken into consideration. They are the associative use, the replicative use, the applicative use, and the interpretive use (pp. 43-60). Very briefly, the associative use of knowledge refers to the psychological process of responding to a new situation with elements of knowledge previously acquired. The replicative use refers to situations that call for direct and familiar use of schooling such as when we read a newspaper, write a letter, or balance a checkbook . The applicative use occurs when an individual is confronted with a new problem and is able to solve the new problem by the use of knowledge acquired in the study of school subjects through previous experience in solving problems demanding similar applications. The interpretive use of schooling refers to the orientation and perspective the individual brings to new situations because the individual has acquired ways of conceptualizing and classifying experience. Much of the discussion about uses of schooling (especially use external to the school) is an elaboration of the transfer problem that has plagued educators ever since Edward Thorndike first set forth his theory of transfer through the existence of identical elements in 1908. The most easily explained is the replicative use as described above because of the direct similarity between the use external to the school and the mode of learning and practice in school. Take reading for example. Reading from school materials is directly similar to reading of materials outside the school. But when it comes to applying knowledge or making new interpretations or associations between knowledge required in school and life situations external to schools, a more complicated transfer situation exists. Unfortunately, many of the questions raised about utility and uses of schooling have not been answered through curriculum design. Nor are they likely to be because so much is dependent upon classroom teaching technique and the design of instructional strategies. The best efforts in curriculum design have been through the generation of new courses (subjects if you please) in which the content is purportedly more like life external to the school. Reference here is made not only to specialized courses such as technical, vocational, commercial and occupational courses but also to courses designed around molar problems, problems of living, and core programs. In many respects, the broad fields courses were designed for purposes of saving time during the school day and to facilitate the transfer of knowledge acquired. But whatever the curriculum design, if teachers are not aware of and sensitive to the kind of analyses of the content to be taught as we have been discussing it, the uses of schooling will not be maximized. All the more reason why teachers should be part of the curriculum planning effort and participate in the required dialogue. In summary, then, what courses of action with respect to curriculum design appear to be the most appropriate for todays curriculum planners? The most important aspect of curriculum design is the display to be made of culture content once the content has been selected. The total amount of culture content is constantly growing thus making the problem of selection for curriculum content more difficult as time goes on. Unquestionably, the role of those schools (elementary and secondary) that operate under compulsory school attendance laws must constantly be examined in terms of what they should or should not offer in their curricula. The elementary school curriculum has always been designed with general education in mind. In our contemporary society, the secondary school seems to be moving in that same direction. Both, however, have seen fit to divide the content selected into realms or courses as appropriate. Scope and sequence have long been two major problems in curriculum design. The display of course content into topical outline is one way planners can watch for discrepancies in scope and sequence. It also helps with horizontal articulation among the various subjects. To help teachers generate greater insight into the content outline, it is desirable that the curriculum design reveal the expected cognitive, inquiry or skill, and affective outcomes. These are conventionally arranged in the design of the content in parallel with the topics in the outline. flow behaviorally the outcomes are to be stated is optional to the planners. These outcomes should also be thought of in terms of any goals or purposes that may be stated in the curriculum. What else to include in the design is optional to the plan. It has become quite conventional to think of goals or purposes first and then to select the content. Such procedure is quite arbitrary because all content is selected with some purpose in mind. Nonetheless, a statement of goals and purposes is a useful element in curriculum design. I would add to the topic outline and the expected outcomes a directive statement about the intended use to be made of the curriculum and a statement outlining a scheme for evaluating it.

Investing Online Essay -- GCSE Business Marketing Coursework

Investing Online Personal Investing with Computer Technology Introduction Computer technology has revolutionized the way people can invest their money. Online trading has become the newest fad for people trying to get more bang for their buck. Virtually anyone with access to the Internet can set up an online brokerage account. With just a click of the mouse people can buy and sell stocks. This advanced computer technology for personal investing has its pros and cons. It has made it much easier for the average person to take care of his/her finances in an inexpensive manner. It has alos made it easier for people to become addicted to trading, which can become an expensive habit. Trading Stocks Inexpensively Online trading is easy and inexpensive. In comparison with traditional brokers, Internet brokers charge flat rates for transactions. The traditional full service broker usually charges the investor fees depending on how much stock they buy or sell, not to mention the commission they charge for handling the investors portfolio. Small-time investors with the know how of managing their own finaces have found online trading to be very beneficial. They now have found ways to buy individual stocks at a cheap price without paying all the fees asociated with the full service broker. These investors can go into numerous web sites to get information on any particular stock they are interested in. Many of these web sites are designed for the invstor ju...

World History Chapter

You didn't have to depend on anything, for example if you were a farmer you had to depend on your crops for survival because if the plants died, you could starve to death- Didn't require much time like farming would- You could easily move around town or country. As for farming you would have to stay in your farm because all of your crop were already planted and it would take much more time to replant. 0 Why was the Neolithic Revolution considered so highly significant? How did the Neolithic Revolution effect gender roles? The Neolithic Revolution was considered so highly significant because at this time people started farming since new technology was being invented, it made things easier.Population grew immensely due to the change of life style from hunting and gathering to farming. The Neolithic Revolution effected gender roles because before anyone started farming the men was the one who would go out and hunt while the woman cooked and gathered the food. But once farming started bo th gender were able to do the same Job. Compare and contrast homo sapiens and homo erects in regards to surviving. Both Homo erects and Homo sapiens migrated from Africa to various parts of Europe and Asia. It made it easier to migrate around because of low sea levels associated with the Ice Age. Homo sapiens migrated from Africa during a wet period and crossed the land bridge to the Americas during the last glacial period.These migrations were lead by minor physical evolutionary changes such as changes in skin pigmentation. However, humans adapted to their new environments not through biological evolution but through a process of technological adaptation. Compare the slave systems of Mesopotamia empires and Egypt. In Mesopotamia Empires many of role than they would in the later societies of Greece and Rome. They were identified by a distinctive hair style rather than chains or brands, they would have a barber shave off the telltale mark if they were lucky enough to regain their fre edom. On the other hand, Slavery in Egypt existed on a limited scale and was of little economic significance.But humane treatment softened the burden of slavery, as did the possibility of being freed. Slavery was not very common or bad in Egypt as it was in he Mesopotamia empires List the indicators of a â€Å"civilization†. 0(1) cities as administrative centers, 0(2) a political system based on defined territory rather than kinship, 0(3) many people engaged in specialized, non-food-producing activities, 0(4) status distinctions based largely on accumulation of wealth, 0(5) monumental building, 0(6) a system for keeping permanent records, 0(7) long-distance trade, and (8) sophisticated interest in science and art. 0 How did the religious beliefs in Mesopotamia and in Egypt reflect the relationships between the environment and the people?